Life in the Colonial Cities Essay Example for Free

Life in the Colonial Cities Essay The people of early colonial America settled mainly in rural areas and farms. Eventually, by the end of the 18th century, cities became dominant settlements over the rural regions. The cities of colonial America were heavily influences by British; the latest fashions of dress, social ideas, and furniture among other things were imported from Great Britain. As the size of cities grew, problems in health and sanitation began to arise. Throughout all of the major cities, taverns were the common places where everyone would meet. The cities of colonial America helped spread the European Enlightenment across the Atlantic. This in turn helped create an American Enlightenment movement, which started primarily in the major cities. Cities helped develop the advancement of learning in science, literature, and the arts. They were also centers for manufacturing and commerce, where industry boomed. The major cities of America included Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Newport, and Charleston. In these large cities, many problems began to surface. These difficulties involved health, sanitation, police protection, and fire prevention. To decrease these problems meant that the city would have to work together and stop with individualistic ways. Philadelphia was the most heavily populated, and most sophisticated of the major cities. They had brick roads and sidewalks including street lamps, which turned on every night. There was a regular night watch along with volunteers for fire protection and there were also many booksellers. Some people were unhappy with Philadelphias design while others thought the city to be a masterpiece. Boston was another populous city, thanks to its elegance and in general the manners of its people. The people of Boston had many luxuries, such as coach rides where slaves served the customers. Also, the Mall was a very popular place among the people. The Mall was a beautiful Common with trees and paths, which was an imitation of St Jamess Park. Although Boston was not as  densely populated as Philadelphia, Boston offered a cleaner and more open society. New York City preserved many of its native Dutch traditions and qualities. A lot of the buildings were built of brick, which was the common Dutch style. New York also had developed into the headquarters of the British North American Army. Many New Yorkers were influenced greatly by Britain, which meant that the people were considered to have excellent manners. Taverns were the centers of social life in the cities, also called the principal social institution of colonial America. The taverns social class ranged greatly depending on its surrounding areas. Some taverns housed the low lifes and poor people while others only accepted gentleman. Most of the pubs were a place for common people to discuss any matters at hand. Some say the foundation of the Revolutionary War was planned in taverns. Some people felt as if taverns were causing some problems in society. Benjamin Franklin was one of the major figures that tried to limit the number of taverns in cities. He argued that the number of taverns might cause poverty to many of the people and the surrounding neighborhood. However, taverns could be considered good to the cities because they were the closest form of business enterprise in colonial America to this point. Although in the early years of colonial America, many people resided in the rural areas, the cities became more populated over time. Taverns were a main reason for people moving from farms to the cities. The conditions of the city werent excellent, as the water supply was not very sanitary and garbage disposal was a major issue. However, these factors made for the beginning of a new nation and helped form how America is today.

Assignment One Essay Example for Free

Assignment One Essay 1.) What are some of the hardships faced by indentured servants in Virginia during the early days of the colony? a. Some of the hardships faced by indentured servants was disease such as â€Å"scurvy, bloody flux, and diverse other diseases.† Also, they have not much of a variety of food to eat, they eat â€Å"peas and loblollies†, and so they will do anything to be able to eat other variety of foods. The amount of food they get is shared between other men. Therefore their amount of food intake is not enough to make them full. They have clothes but they are old and dirty because they one of everything they wear. Since they do not have anything worth a penny, because if they do others steal it, they cannot have food other than peas. They cannot eat bread because it cost a penny and they don’t have a penny to buy anything. 2.) How does the physical location of Jamestown colony lead to many of the hardships described in this document? b. It seems they are close to possibly Indian attacks or people from other countries because he stated in the story â€Å"but yet we are 32 to fight 3000 if they should come.† He hasn’t seen any deer or venison since he arrived in Jamestown; therefore the meat source is not a great source for food reliability. It takes them a few days to retrieve cargo from the ships. They start to the shore and sleep the first night they get there, then unload the next day and start back to their home with the cargo. 3.) How have conditions at Jamestown affected the writer of this letter? c. He thinks negative about everything. He has nothing in Jamestown to call his own or â€Å"nothing to comfort him.† He expects the worse because people are dying by the hour. Not having much to eat, he doesn’t think he will survive much longer unless his he dies before he receives the package. He believes in God and that he can keep him alive if he drinks water, he heard. He tells his dad to have mercy and pity on him, that life in England was better because he had more food that filled him. He thanks his parents for providing all that they did while he lived in England. He loves his dad and doesn’t want his dad to forget him.

Drug â€excipient Interaction of Anti-tubercular Drugs

Drug –excipient Interaction of Anti-tubercular Drugs Drug –excipient interaction of anti-tubercular drugs and its in-silico evaluation Abstract Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide are the first line anti tubercular drugs. Lactose is mainly used as the excipient in solid dosage forms of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. These drugs contains primary and secondary amino functional group which interacts with lactose by maillard reaction and form adduct. The maillard reaction adducts of isoniazid and pyrazinamide with lactose were synthesized at 60oC in alkaline borate buffer pH 9.2 and characterized by UV, FT-IR, DSC, HPLC and MS. Docking study for in-sillico evaluation of isoniazid-lactose adduct and pyrazinamide-lactose adduct was performed to study its effect on pharmacological activity. The present study shows the presence of incompatibility between isoniazid and pyazinamidewith lactose which leads to loss the therapeutic effect of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. Keywords: isoniazid, pyrazinamide, lactose, maillard reaction, excipient, incompatibility, dosage form. Introduction Excipients are traditionally better known as promoters of degradation than as stabilizers of drug substances (Crowley 1999). Physicochemical and physiological process e.g. stability, physiological pH, gastrointestinal transit time, disintegration, dissolution, permeability and bioavailability can be altered by drug excipient interaction (Jackson, Young et al. 2000). The interactions of drug with excipients can leads to changes in the chemical, physical and therapeutic properties can be termed as incompatibilities (Chadha and Bhandari 2014) and it may cause the drug degradation (Narang, Desai et al. 2012) and loss of pharmacological activity (Patil and Patil 2013). Lactose is most widely used as the excipient in the solid dosage forms. Lactose is available in different form and different grade with different physical characteristics. Lactose is very popular excipient because of low cost and inertness but in other hand lactose have interaction drug with amino functional group i.e. lact ose undergoes maillard [Monajjemzadeh, 2009]The maillard reaction is named Louis Maillard who reported over 80 years ago that some amine and reducing sugars interact each other and forms brown pigments. The first product of this reaction is simple glycosamine (Wirth, Baertschi et al. 1998). In this study, we attempted to explore the modes of interaction and energy binding of the different isomers of isoniazid adduct, pyrazinamide adduct and also study the biological activity of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct compare with the help of various molecular modelling techniques. In treatment of tuberculosis, isoniazid and pyrazinamide are key components of first line regimen (Hemanth, Sudha et al. 2012). Isoniazid is chemically isonicotohydrazide and pyrazinamide is chemically pyrazine-2-carboxamide. Isoniazid and pyrazinamide is susceptible for hydrolysis and oxidation interact with excipient particularly carbohydrate and reducing sugars to form hydrazones. The hydrazone is mainly form by the interaction of isoniazid with lactose. There are also reported incompatibilities between lactose and other drugs containing primary and secondary amino functional group (Haywood, Mangan et al. 2005). In this study we were investigated the interaction between lactose with isoniazid and pyrazinamide for that different analytical technique were used and also done the in-sillico evaluation of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. Materials and methods Materials Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide was generously supplied as a gift sample by Macleods Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Wapi (Gujarat), India. Lactose monohydrate was purchased from Merck, Merck specialtiesPvt.Ltd. Mumbai, India. All other chemicals were of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analytical grade. Methods Analytical methods UV-visible spectrophotometry The Ultraviolet-visible spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide and the Isoniazid–lactose adduct, Pyrazinamide-lactose adductwere recorded on a double beam UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1700; Shimadzu, Japan). An accurately weighed quantity of about 10 mg of isoniazid, 10 mg of pyrazinamide, 11.66 mg isoniazid-lactose adduct (equivalent to 10 mg isoniazid), 13.33 mg of pyrazinamide-lactose adduct (equivalent to 10 mg pyrazinamide) each dissolved separately in 100 ml of distilled water. From this, one ml of solution was diluted to 10.0 mL with of distilled water to obtain concentration of 10 ppm. All solutionswere scanned in UV-Visible range at 420 and 490 nm (Yates, Jones et al. 2003). Fourier-Transform infrared spectroscopy The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of isoniazid, pyrazinamide, lactose, a isoniazid–lactose physical mixture, pyrazinamide-lactose physical mixture and the isoniazid–lactose adduct, pyrazinamide-lactose were recorded. The spectra were obtained using the diffuse reflectance scan method using KBr on an FT-IR spectrophotometer (IR Affinity 1; Shimadzu, Japan). The scanning range was 400–4000 cm-1. Each sample was scanned 45 times consecutively to obtain FT-IR spectrum. HPLC analysis The HPLC (Gradient) system used for analysis consisted of Agilent Technologies 1200 series equipment, a G1315D quaternary pump, a G1315D diode array detector and a rheodyne injector fitted with a 20  µL loop. Data were recorded and evaluated using the EZChrome Elite software package. Samples were analyzed using LunaC18 column (250 Ãâ€" 4.6 mm i.d. Ãâ€" 5  µm) (Phenomenex) as stationary phase. The mobile phase was water: methanol (95:05, v/v), flow rate of 0.8 mL/min with detection at 266 nm for isoniazid and 269 nm for pyrazinamide. Differential scanning calorimetry Thermal analysis of Isoniazid, pyrazinamide, isoniazid–lactose adduct and pyrazinamide-lactose was performed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) using a TA 6000 Mettler toledo thermal analyzer. Individual samples as well as the Maillard adduct (about 2 mg) were weighed in the DSC aluminum pan and were scanned in the temperature range of 25–300 °C. A heating rate of 10 °C/min was used. The thermograms were reviewed for evidence of interaction. Mass Spectrometry The Mass spectrometry was performed using 410 Prostar binary LC with 500 MS with Electro spray Positive ionization and Negative Ionization mode and Mass range is 50-2000 amu. The Isoniazid-lactose, Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct solution dissolved in mobile phase to obtain concentration about 100 µg/mL. In the positive ion mode with electrospray ionization technique, the sample was analyzed. Determination of lactose in pharmaceutical tablet dosage forms The presence of lactose in DOTs tablets was initially examined according to Indian Pharmacopoeia 2007 by taking 5ml saturated solution of tablet powder and then add 5ml 1 M NaOH, Heat and cool at room temperature finally add potassium cupri tatatarate the solution becomes red color shows presence of lactose. Preparation of adduct Sample Prepared in alkaline borate buffer Accurately weighed quantity of Isoniazid 300 mg (equivalent to dose of isoniazid) and 50 mg lactose monohydrate dissolve in alkaline borate buffer pH 9.2 by stirring and ultrasound in 100 ml round bottom flask. In similar way 750 mg pyrazinamide (equivalent to dose of pyrazinamide) was dissolve with 250 mg lactose monohydrate in alkaline borate buffer pH 9.2 in 100 ml round bottom flask. The cleared solutions were refluxed at 600C for 12 hour on water bath. The reaction mixture filtered was diluted with menthol: water (1:1). The adduct was subjected to HPLC analysis (gradient and isocratic run) and Mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis. The intensity of brown color was determined was spectrophotometrically after dissolving weighed quantity in distilled water. Docking study The molecular docking tool, GLIDE (Schrodinger Inc., USA) (2006) was used for ligand docking study. The protein preparation was carried out using ‘protein preparation wizard’ in Maestro 9.0. Result UV-Visible spectroscopy The UV-visible absorption spectrum of the isoniazid–lactose adduct and pyrazinamide–lactose adduct had shown an increase in absorption in the visible range as compared with isoniazid and pyrazinamide in distilled water as the solvent. The increased absorption the visible region (brown color) is due to Melanoidins production as the end products of the Maillard reaction as reported earlier (Shen, Tseng et al. 2007). FT-IR spectroscopy The FT-IR absorption patterns of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, lactose, Isoniazid–lactose physical mixture immediately after mixing and pyrazinamide-lactose physical mixture immediately after mixing as well as Isoniazid–lactose adduct, Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct were recorded. The peak at 1678 cm−1 in the IR spectrum of Isoniazid-lactose adduct, 1614 cm−1 Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct can be attributed to the imines formation. The peak of N–H bending is present at 1552 cm−1 and 1583 cm-1 in the IR spectrum of Isonizid and Pyrazinamide and its physical mixture respectively. The peak present in spectrum of Isonizid and Pyrazinamide and its physical mixture are absent in Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct both these observations support the formation of adduct. The N–H stretching band of secondary amine appears at 3302 cm−1 and at 3292 cm-1 for Isonizid and Pyrazinamide respectively. The peak for the lactose O–H appears at 3522 cm−1 in the infrared spectra of lactose. The peaks for N–H and O–H stretching appear in the spectrum of the physical mixture, but the peak for N–H disappears in the spectrum of the adduct. This may indicate the reaction of the amine with the red ucing sugar, or it may be due overlapping of N–H stretching peak with that of O–H. The FTIR spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, Lactose physical mixture, Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct shows an interaction between Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide with lactose leading to the formation of a Maillard product (Pavia et al 2009). Differential scanning calorimetry The DSC thermograms show the presence of melting points for isoniazid and pyrazinamide at 171.61ÃŽ ¿C and 189.55 ÃŽ ¿C. The DSC thermogram of lactose shows the peak at 209.83 ÃŽ ¿C. The adduct shows the disappearance of the melting point peak of isoniazid, pyrazinamide, paracetamol and vildagliptine in adduct samples confirms the formation of adduct. Gradient HPLC analysis Initially a gradient run of water and methanol was performed to obtain preliminary information regarding the unknown peaks in maillard reaction products (Shen, Tseng et al. 2007). The mobile phase was optimized to separate the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct was water: methanol (95:05, v/v) with a flow rate 0.8ml/min at ambient temperature. The Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct elutes at 3.833min and 1.613 min respectively. The control samples for isoniazid and pyrazinamide (without lactose) were also analyzed which proves method selectivity. Isocratic HPLC analysis The optimized isocratic HPLC analysis of the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose revealed one extra peak that eluted before Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide elution respectively. Performing analysis under same chromatographic parameters, no another peak was observed in control samples. Mass spectrometry The Isoniazid-lactose and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct dissolve in mobile phase to obtain drug concentration about 100 µg/ml. In the positive ion mode with electrospray ionization technique, the sample was analyzed. The MS spectra show the precursor ion for Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct was protonated molecule ([M+H]+) m/z 463.3 and 448.1 respectively. The Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct molecular mass was consistent with Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct condensation product respectively. The loss of one water molecule from parent leads to maillard-type condensation product. Docking study Isoniazid In docking study, isoniazid shows binding with ARG-38 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code: 3I6N) and isoniazid-lactose adduct shows binding with ASN-72, SER-69, SER-173, ALA-134 and PRO-132 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code: 3I6N) as shown in Table No. 1.1. Pyrazinamide Pyrazinamide shows binding with ALA-131 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code: 3PL1) and pyrazinamide-lactose adduct shows binding with ASP-133 and LEU-131 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code: 3PL1). Discussion On the above observation difficulties in the formulating a new pharmaceutical dosage form have often experienced because of the interaction between the lactose and active ingredients itself i.e. isoniazid and pyrazinamide. Although the nature and intensity of this interaction may alter the stability, dissolution rate and consequently absorption of the drug and also affect the pharmacological effect. it indicates that such interactions involving in the formation of the complexes and it studied by different analytical techniques. The UV results shows increased absorption in the visible region (brown color) is due to Melanoidins production as the end products of the Maillard reaction as reported earlier in Shen, Tseng et al. 2007. The FTIR spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, Lactose physical mixture, Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct shows peak of C=N it shows that formation of a Maillard product. HPLC analysis of the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose revealed one extra peak of impurity or maillard reaction product that eluted before Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide elution respectively. The MS spectra show the precursor ion for Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct and it has same molecular weight related to maillard-type condensation product. In the docking study of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct shows more binding than isoniazid and pyrazinamide but this is pseudo results because this binding present at hydroxyl group and hydroxyl group are responsible for the increase excretion of the isoniazid and pyrazinamide and it may be reduces the therapeutic effect of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. In spite of that analytical study confirm the occurrence of maillard reaction product in lactose containing solid dosage forms of amino functional group containing drugs but lactose is still preferred as excipient in the isoniazid and pyrazinamide containing anti-tubercular formulation i.e. DOT’s. Conclusion The present study reports that antitubercular drugs i.e. isoniazid and pyrazinamide undergoes maillard reaction and that confirmed by UV, FT-IR, HPLC and MS. The docking study of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct more binding than isoniazid and pyrazinamide but it is pseudo results pharmacologically the excretion of isoniazid and pyrazinamide increase and it ultimately reduces the therapeutic activity. A drugs- excipient interaction study can be actively used to the advantage of the formulator to increase the bioavailability of the drug. By compiling the data the use of lactose in the formulation of isoniazid and pyrazinamide, secondary amines needs to reconsideration. References: Chadha, R. and S. Bhandari (2014). Drug–excipient compatibility screening—Role of thermoanalytical and spectroscopic techniques. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis87: 82-97. Crowley, P. J. (1999). Excipients as stabilizers. Pharmaceutical science technology today2(6): 237-243. Haywood, A., et al. (2005). Extemporaneous isoniazid mixture: stability implications. Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research35(3): 181. Hemanth, A. K., et al. (2012). Simple and rapid liquid chromatography method for simultaneous determination of isoniazid and pyrazinamide in plasma. SAARC Journal of Tuberculosis, Lung Diseases and HIV/AIDS9(1): 13-18. Indian Pharmacopoeia, (2007). Government of India, Ministry of health and family walefare, published by the Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission, Gaziabad; vol. II III, pp. 658, 478, 628, 1009, 1008. Jackson, K., et al. (2000). Drug–excipient interactions and their affect on absorption. Pharmaceutical science technology today3(10): 336-345. MONAJJEMZADEH, F., HASSANZADEH, D., VALIZADEH, H., SIAHI-SHADBAD, M. R., MOJARRAD, J. S., ROBERTSON, T. A. ROBERTS, M. S. 2009b. Compatibility studies of acyclovir and lactose in physical mixtures and commercial tablets. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 73, 404-413. Narang, A. S., et al. (2012). Impact of excipient interactions on solid dosage form stability. Pharmaceutical research29(10): 2660-2683. PAVIA, D. L. 2009. Introduction to spectroscopy, CengageBrain. com Patil, D. D. and C. R. Patil (2013). Modification of pharmacological activity of nebivolol due to Maillard reaction. Pharmaceutical development and technology18(4): 844-851. Petrella, Stà ©phanie Gelus-Ziental, Nathalie Maudry, Arnaud Laurans, Caroline Boudjelloul, RachidSougakoff, Wladimir(2011).Crystal structure of the pyrazinamidase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: insights into natural and acquired resistance to pyrazinamide.PLoS One,6(1):e15785. Singh, Amit K Kumar, Ramasamy P Pandey, Nisha Singh, Nagendra Sinha, Mau Bhushan, AshaKaur, PunitSharma, SujataSingh, Tej P (2010). Mode of Binding of the Tuberculosis Prodrug Isoniazid to Heme Peroxidases BINDING STUDIES AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF BOVINE LACTOPEROXIDASE WITH ISONIAZID AT 2.7 Ã… RESOLUTION.Journal of biological chemistry, 285(2): 1569-1576. Shen, S.-C., et al. (2007). An analysis of Maillard reaction products in ethanolic glucose–glycine solution. Food chemistry102(1): 281-287. Wirth, D. D., et al. (1998). Maillard reaction of lactose and fluoxetine hydrochloride, a secondary amine. Journal of pharmaceutical sciences87(1): 31-39. Yates, E. A., et al. (2003). Microwave enhanced reaction of carbohydrates with amino-derivatised labels and glass surfaces. Journal of Materials Chemistry13(9): 2061-2063.

Essay --

Walter Cronkite: One of America’s most beloved and well-known television personalities left a lasting impact on the presentation of news on television. (wrong use of a colon.. did you mean to have this sentence as a title?) As Cronkite grew with his network, so did his power and influence over the minds of the American public. (awkward transition between your intro, whichi is too brief to begin with, and the next part) Cronkite was born in Saint Joseph, Missouri, and later during his high school years, shared his first taste of journalism by working on the local high school newspaper. (Barron) Later accepted into the University of Texas at Austin, Cronkite participated in more newspaper organizations and fraternities until he decided to drop out of school late in his junior year. After being offered several reporting jobs covering news and sports, Cronkite began his broadcasting career as a radio announcer for WKY in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma before switching over to a sports an nouncer for KCMO in Kansas City, Missouri. (Barnhart) World War II soon broke out and Cronkite was chosen as one of eight journalists to cover the stories going on in the rampaging Europe. Gaining a reputation as a big-time journalist, Cronkite continued to expand on his credibility by covering the Nuremberg Trials, a series of cases that prosecuted the leaders of Nazi Germany. As several years passes, the tides of war finally grew to a close and Cronkite returned home where he soon himself a job at CBS News in 1950. (No real focus here. What are you trying to accomplish here? Are you going with a chronological coverage of his life? If so, prep the reader for it. I thought this was still the introductory paragraph at first) â€Å"Television became a powerful medi... ...rrow who encouraged voicing one’s opinion, Cronkite refused to share his own beliefs in his broadcasts. But even if he was objective, Cronkite was not afraid to smile or show enthusiasm and emotions during the show. He gave off this warm and fuzzy personality that brought in many viewers and his signature sign-off, â€Å"That’s the way it is,† became popular for its folksy charm. â€Å"Before long, viewers were calling him Uncle Walter.† (Ritchie) The actual use of Water’s name was a new change brought as well. Before this time, radio stations at the time did not want people to use their real names for fear of taking their listeners with them if they left. For example, the news stations did not want the audience to become too attached to a certain reporter or host, such as Cronkite, since of that reporter left, then many fans would follow suit and drop the station’s ratings.

Hamilton Argues Against A Bill Of Rights :: essays research papers

During the late 18th century the Antifederalists argued against the constitution on the grounds that it did not contain a bill of rights. They believed that without a list of personal freedoms, the new national government might abuse its powers and that the states would be immersed by an all to dominant and influential national government. The Antifederalists worried that the limits on direct voting and the long terms of the president and senators, supplied by the constitution, would create a population of elites and aristocrats, which in turn would eventually take away power from the people. They also feared that the president might become another monarch. In other words, the Antifederalists ultimately felt that the new Constitution was undemocratic. Supporters of a constitution, lacking a bill of rights, were called Federalists. The Federalists included members such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, whom wrote a series of essays that were designed to inform and persuade the public of their views pertaining to the issues of the day. Among these views was whether a bill of rights should be added to the constitution. The Federalists, via Alexander Hamilton, dealt with this issue in a foremost way in their 84th essay. In the 84th essay Hamilton begins by explaining that a bill of rights, which are â€Å"in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgements of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince.† Therefore Hamilton states that bills of rights â€Å"have no application to constitutions professedly founded upon the power of the people,† and that under the constitution â€Å"the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything they have no need of particular reservations." Another argument used by Hamilton was reminding, those who criticize the constitution for lacking a Bill of Rights, that many of the state constitutions do not contain one either. He believes that the Constitution, as is, effectively includes a bill of rights. The constitution contained various provisions in favor of particular privileges and rights. Provisions such as the power to impeach, writ of habeas corpus, the allowance for no bill of attainder or ex post facto law, no granting of title of nobility, trials that shall be by a jury in the state which the crime was committed within, and that punishment for treason will not extend to family members of the person convicted of that crime.

Shakespeare As You Like It: Effective Use Of Sound In Jaques Speech :: essays research papers fc

Shakespeare' As You Like It: Effective Use of Sound In Jaques' Speech As infamous as Shakespeare is, and as well known as his works are, some prose are just simply more extraordinary than the rest. There are many ways to look at Jaques speech, such as use of language or imagery yet, something we often do not reflect on is the sound of the prose. When reading this particular speech, the subject is directly related to the sounds Shakespeare has chosen. We are guided gracefully through the stages of life in twenty-seven lines. As it is read aloud, the reader hears the actual sounds that each stage exhibits, and finds themselves part of the speech, experiencing it, as opposed to merely reading it. The introduction is like a drum-roll before the show starts. The intonation at which the reader proceeds begins with a high sound due to† ...(a)ll...† 1 being the first word. The ‘aw' sound is repeated at the beginning and three times during the next sentence, â€Å"And all the men and women merely players;† (2.7.140). The next sentence is lower in pitch, using a lower ‘ e' sound â€Å"..exit and their entrances,† (2.7.141). Reappearing in the final two sentences, before the actual ages begin, is the ‘aw' sound. The fluctuation like that of a ring master, is striving to gain attention before the show starts. The first three stages can be considered the childhood progressing into adulthood stages. â€Å"Mewling and puking...† (2.7.144), are two words, which when said, they are slurred and unclear, much like that of the speech of an infant. The ‘ew' in mewling and the ‘you' sound in puking are common noises from young children. Next we reach the schoolboy stage. Young men are often reluctant to attend school, and their protests take the form of â€Å"...whining...† (2.7.145). When the word whining is pronounced, it sounds like a whine. The word starts with a dragged out ‘why' sound, making the reader again feel like they are making the sounds which are pertinent to that age. Words associated with lovers are soft and flowing, much like those used by Shakespeare in the prose of this age. â€Å"Sighing like furnace, with woeful ballad† (2.7.148), depict more emotion than seen within the prior two stages. When sighing is pronounced, it takes the form of an actual sigh, causing the reader to actually act out the verb instead of simply speaking it. The three initial stages are complete, leaving the reader dangling on the edge of adulthood. Soldiers are usually equated with fast wit and decisiveness. The use of short words and short sounds emphasize these next five lines of prose in

Theodore Roosevelt And the Rise of America to World Power

Theodore Roosevelt And the Rise of America to World Power Howard K. Beale Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power was published by John Hopkins University Press in 1956. Beale's books emphasized and interpreted economic factors during the Reconstruction Era. His scholarly works gained the term â€Å"the Beale Thesis†, which was based upon Beale's theory that Reconstruction was the effort of big business to seek control over the federal government for their own gain by eliminating agrarian competition.Among having published several books, Beale also edited the diaries of Edward Bates and Gideon Welles, both of Lincoln's cabinet, nd edited a work of scholarly essays by leading historians. Beale was a professor of history at the University of Wisconsin. Beale's book, â€Å"Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power† covers the major developments, policies, and actions by which the â€Å"Imperialists† helped guide America into world p ower. It gives insight into the role Roosevelt played in the policies at the turn of the century.Beale gives detail into Roosevelt's personal diplomacy, his feelings for other nations, and why he believed it was appropriate that America tied itself with England as an â€Å"English- speaking† power. Beale also questions to what extent did Roosevelt and his fellow expansionists influence the course of America? Did the need for American imperialism eventually lead us into danger? During the last decade of the nineteenth century, national loyalties strengthened nations and a struggle for power would become the dominating ambition for industrialized nations.Competition had aroused nations â€Å"to expand their political and economic, perhaps too their cultural, control beyond their national boundaries as far as their energies and opportunities permitted. † (pg 31) This new imperialism was based on industrial rivalry and America ad to choose if she would follow suit. â€Å" The people of America never really consciously decided what they wanted to do. Yet as the obvious trend toward becoming an imperial power in real or potential conflict with other empires emerged, many Americans foresaw dangers and opposed steps that were leading us into imperialism. (pg 33) Theodore Roosevelt came into presidency with a firm belief that America needed to expand its power abroad and that we should stand ready to defend our interests. Even before he became president, Roosevelt and his fellow expansionists already had an influence in foreign policy. Roosevelt had an affinity for war history since he was a youth so it was only natural to him to believe a big part of America's power came from it's navy. In 1897, Roosevelt, with the help of his friends, became the Assistant Secretary of Navvy under President McKinley.He used his office to promote building a stronger, bigger naw fleet. Roosevelt was known to glorify war, as he â€Å"believed only in â€Å"Just wars†, but then any war America fought would be just. † (pg 40) Fearing the danger Spain posed to Cuba, Roosevelt supported America's involvement in war against Spain. Roosevelt tried to appeal war to McKinley, but ailed. â€Å"The best Roosevelt could do was prepare the Navvy for war. † (pg 68) One day while Secretary Long was out for a few hours, Roosevelt, standing in as secretary, ordered deliberate acts that he and his friends planned for months.Two months later the Spanish-American War began and Roosevelt abandoned his office to Join in the war. In the campaign of 1900, Roosevelt campaigned for vice president under McKinley. He promoted expansion and asserted the relevance of the Monroe Doctrine. He insisted during his speeches that expansion† was not the same as â€Å"imperialism† because the term turned people off. Roosevelt had convinced himself and others that his was the cause of righteousness. The Spanish-American War brought the U. S. he Philippine s and Roosevelt insisted that extending the rule over the Philippines would bring them civilization. To him this meant that the anti- imperialists who opposed expansion were also opposing civilization. â€Å"Roosevelt seems not to have foreseen the possibility that the spread of civilization through expansion of the rule of â€Å"superior† races over â€Å"backward† ones might someday arouse nationalist aspirations that would threaten that civilization itself. (pg 79) Roosevelt assumed presidency in 1901 after McKinley was assassinated and his first major step as president was establishing Britain as an ally.Roosevelt recognized that common language and way of life established a connection. By attainment of the Anglo- American understanding, â€Å"British and American imperialists were Joined together in an effort to dominate parts of the world they dubbed backwards. Second, Roosevelt and his friends had brought England and America together in an effort to preserve t hrough united action an unstable balance among the nations he considered ivilized. † (pg 157) The establishment of an alliance between America and Britain was also essential to balance the power of a rising Germany.In 1902, Roosevelt prepared to go to war with Germany to prevent any foothold in South America. He asserted use of the Monroe Doctrine. As it became evident that China needed allies, Roosevelt also recognized an economic motive. â€Å"He saw the possibility of America Joining Britain to enforce an open door policy in China. † (pg 163) Although economics was not particularly the main focus driving Roosevelt's vision of expansion, he understood the mportance of commercial interests in the Far East.If America had not attained the upper hand in China, China could have had a closed door policy and wouldn't have secured the benefits of open door. Roosevelt wanted China to have a policy similar to the Monroe Doctrine, and to let China develop on its own. Roosevelt b egan to feel an annoyance with Russia, fearing that the growing trade with China could be interrupted if the issues with Manchuria weren't solved. So in an effort to balance the power and open the doors to Manchuria, Roosevelt supported China in its struggle gainst Russia.As Britain's power began to decline, Russia's power began to rise and Roosevelt saw the imbalance. He knew he had to restore the stability. While Germany still posed a threat, Russia was thought to be the more immediate danger. â€Å"Russian expansion, which had once seemed desirable, no longer meant extending control of a superior over a backward race, but had become an obstacle to the push of another civilizing power. † (pg 231) When the Japanese attacked Russia, Roosevelt was proud. He admired the Japanese people and believed if he supported them they would serve American interests in Japan.While Roosevelt saw the danger in Japan becoming too powerful, the power of Russia in the present outweighed that fe ar. Roosevelt hoped that with a Japanese win, Japan would organize China and together they would become great civilized powers. Roosevelt held part in the negotiation treaty between the two nations. Roosevelt had foreseen the dangers Japan posed, in which ultimately defeated his goal to balance power in the Far East. Roosevelt's concern to balance power led to an interest in Europe. He had thought of the possibility of war if balance ere not maintained.In order to keep from war, Roosevelt tried to bring America and Europe closer together in hopes of removing distrust and threats of war. Roosevelt felt that â€Å"Japan, England, France, Russia, or Germany, his â€Å"civilized powers†, and even the United States, could be as serious threats to each other and to world peace as the backwards people. † (pg 305) In his efforts to prevent war, Roosevelt called the Portsmouth Conference, and in 1905 played a role in the Algeciras Conference. The dispute between Britain, France and Germany had no direct interest to the UnitedStates, but Roosevelt wanted to keep the peace. Roosevelt became an intermediary as to keep Morocco open to American trade, as well as to keep Germany from becoming the dominant power in Europe or to expand into South America. Although Roosevelt wanted to expand America and civilize the inferior races, he knew that â€Å"his countrys interests could be protected only if no power became powerful enough to threaten the rights of other powers. † (pg 382) Roosevelt saw the rivalries between nations and understood the threat too much power posed.Roosevelt was successful in most of is endeavors, Germany was kept out of South America and Japan influenced Korea and China. The open door remained. Roosevelt's uncommon approach to diplomacy gained him much respect among other rulers. The way he personally handled foreign relations with directness put people at ease. His keen sense in foreign policies and almost prophetic insights made The odore Roosevelt one of America's most influential men. As well, his extraordinary diplomatic skills made him one unforgettable man. If Roosevelt had made different choices in foreign policy would todays America be the same? We will never know.